Looking for Jesus according to Matthew

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Writing (7)

Did all the first ancient civilizations have the same interest in writing?

No, not all ancient civilizations had the same level of interest or a developed writing system; some, like the Inca, used a different system called quipu for record-keeping, while others, such as some societies in precolonial Mesoamerica, achieved complexity without a writing system at all. The interest in writing was driven by practical needs like economic and agricultural record-keeping, religious purposes, and later, the preservation and transmission of culture, history, and laws.
Civilizations with Writing

• Sumerians in Mesopotamia: Developed the first known writing system, cuneiform, primarily for economic reasons, documenting grain and animal stores to track transactions and manage property.

Civilizations Without Traditional Writing Systems

• Inca Civilization: Used quipu, a complex system of knotted strings, to record information, demonstrating that a non-written system can serve civilizational needs.

Why Interest in Writing Varied

• Practical Needs: The need to keep records for agriculture, trade, taxes, and property was a primary driver for developing writing in some civilizations.
  

Egyptians: Created hieroglyphs, a complex system initially used for sacred carvings and religious purposes, which also served for economic and administrative record-keeping.
Chinese: Developed their writing system, possibly linked to divination, which later expanded to include historical and cultural records.
Mesoamerican Societies: Certain complex precolonial societies in Mesoamerica, despite large populations and advanced governments, did not develop a writing system, highlighting that writing isn't a universal requirement for civilization.
Cultural Context: The specific cultural, political, and religious concerns of a society determined their approach to written language.
Technological Alternatives: The existence of alternative methods, such as the Inca's quipu, meant that some civilizations could fulfill record-keeping needs without developing a traditional writing system.

 

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Writing (8)

Are there any genealogies like Adam's genealogy in the Bible in other religions or mythologies?

Yes, genealogies that establish connections to a primal ancestral figure exist in other mythologies, though they may differ in their focus and historical reliability from the biblical account of Adam. For example, Greek myths feature aristocratic families tracing their lineage to gods, while ancient Mesopotamian king lists include mythical and historical figures to legitimize rulers. These genealogies served various purposes, from justifying authority and structure to understanding origins, rather than strictly chronological records.
Examples from Other Traditions

• Ancient Greek Mythology: Greek genealogies often linked noble families to unions between gods and mortals, creating a sense of divine or heroic heritage. These lists, like those found in Hesiod's Catalogue of Women, served to legitimize the power and status of aristocratic lines.

Purpose of Mythological Genealogies

• Justifying Authority: As seen in Greek and medieval European traditions, genealogies were used to establish a connection to divine or powerful figures, thereby legitimizing the current rulers or aristocratic families.

Similarities and Differences with the Biblical Adam

• Shared Ancestral Figure: Like the biblical Adam, many cultures have a primary male and female ancestral pair from which all humanity is believed to have descended.
  

Mesopotamian Cultures: Ancient Mesopotamian king lists, such as the Sumerian king list, include mythological rulers with impossibly long reigns before the Flood, establishing an ancient lineage that included both mythical and, for the later period, historical figures.
Establishing a Worldview: These lists helped to structure the world in terms of time and ancestry, providing a framework for understanding the past and one's place in it.
Building Collective Identity: In oral traditions, such genealogies could also serve to reinforce the shared history and identity of a people by tracing their origins back to a common, foundational ancestor.
Differing Levels of Historical Claim: While the Bible presents its genealogies as a chronological account, the literal historicity of early figures like Adam and Noah is debated by scholars. In contrast, the explicit function of many mythological genealogies was not historical documentation but rather the creation of a narrative for political or cultural purposes.

 

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Writing (9)

Are there any genealogies in the Quran?

Yes, the Quran contains genealogical information, though not in the form of exhaustive family trees found in other traditions; instead, it uses lineage to establish spiritual and historical connections, particularly through figures like Abraham and Muhammad. The Quran mentions key lineage points, such as the selection of Isma'il from Abraham's progeny and the choice of the Banu Hashim clan from which Muhammad originated, and identifies figures like Mary as the "daughter of Imran" and a "sister of Aaron" to emphasize their spiritual kinship and legacy.
Examples of Genealogical references in the Quran:

• Lineage of Muhammad: The Quran states that Allah chose Isma'il from Abraham's descendants, then the Banu Quraish from Isma'il's descendants, and finally Muhammad from the Banu Hashim clan.

These references highlight the importance of ancestral and spiritual connections within the Quran's narrative, establishing lineage as a significant element of faith and history.

Mary's Lineage: The Quran refers to Mary as the "daughter of Imran" and a "sister of Aaron". While this differs from the biblical genealogy, it serves to place her within a respected spiritual lineage, connecting her to the prophetic tradition.
Typological vs. Strict Genealogy: The use of terms like "sister" and "daughter" can indicate extended kinship or spiritual affinity rather than a precise genealogical relationship, a practice known as typology.

 

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Writing (10)

Is there a list of sumerian kings?

Yes, there is a list of Sumerian kings, known as the Sumerian King List (SKL), an ancient document that combines mythological and historical accounts to provide a timeline of rulers and cities in ancient Mesopotamia. The most extensive version is the Weld-Blundell prism at the Ashmolean Museum. This list names cities and their kings, noting the lengths of their reigns, which range from extraordinarily long periods in the mythological pre-flood era to more historically plausible reigns in later periods.
What the Sumerian King List includes:

• Cities: A succession of cities from Sumer and its neighboring regions.

Key characteristics:

• Myth and History: The SKL uniquely blends mythological figures, such as the eight kings who reigned before the great flood, with historically verifiable rulers from later periods.
  

Rulers: The names of the kings who ruled these cities.

Reigns: The length of each ruler's reign, with reigns in the early parts of the list often spanning thousands of years.
Divine Kingship: The list reflects the Sumerian belief in divine kingship, as it connects rulers to divine ancestry and assigns them incredibly long lifespans, especially in the early entries.
Chronological Framework: It serves as an important chronological framework, providing an outline of the succession of kingship in various Sumerian city-states and kingdoms.
Legacy: The document reveals the Sumerians' perception of their own past, creating a cultural narrative that links legend and fact.

 

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Writing (11)

Sumerian king list:

After the kingship descended from heaven, the kingship was in Eridu.
In Eridu, Alulim became king; he ruled for 28,800 years.
Alalgar ruled for 36,000 years.
Two kings; they ruled for 64800 years.

- Thus everything starts in the Sumerian city of Eridu!

- There is a connection with heaven!

- We are told about two kings: Alulim and Alalgar!

- They were kings for thousands of years!

 

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Writing (12)

Sumerian king list:
Do we know anything about the first two kings of Eridu Alulim and Alalgar except from the Sumerian king list?


No, we do not know anything about the Sumerian kings Alulim and Alalgar except from the Sumerian King List. These figures are considered mythical, having ruled for thousands of years, and are included in the list alongside later, historically verifiable rulers as a combination of myth and history.
The Sumerian King List

• The Sumerian King List (SKL) is a compilation of kings from Sumer, blending mythological elements with historical information.

Alulim and Alalgar

• Alulim is listed as the first king, ruling in the city of Eridu.
  

It is not a precise historical record but a nation-building document that aimed to legitimize certain dynasties and provide a continuous line of kingship.

He and Alalgar, who also ruled in Eridu, are presented with reigns of tens of thousands of years, indicating their mythical status.

Their existence is solely documented in the SKL, with no independent corroborating evidence from archaeology or other texts.

 

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Writing (13)

Sumerian king list:

What does the name of the Sumerian king Alulim mean?

The Sumerian name Alulim can mean "horn of the red deer" or "seed of the red deer" in Sumerian, depending on the interpretation of the first cuneiform sign. This legendary pre-flood king's name is not a common given name and may be linked to Mesopotamian beliefs about early humanity's animal-like behavior or possibly a reinterpretation of the word for deer (ayyalu), according to Wikipedia.
Here's a breakdown of the name's meaning:

• Cuneiform Spelling: The name was written as A2-lu-lim or A-lu-lim in cuneiform script.
  

Variable First Sign: The first sign (A2) can be interpreted to mean "horn" or "seed," leading to the different possible translations.
Connection to Deer: The name is potentially linked to the Sumerian word "ayyalu" or the Akkadian equivalent, both meaning "deer" or "stag".
Mythological Context: Alulim is considered a mythical figure from the pre-flood era, known as the first king of Eridu in the Sumerian King List.
Symbolic Meaning: The name might reflect beliefs about humanity's primitive, animal-like existence at the dawn of history.

 

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Writing (14)

Sumerian king list:

Then Eridu fell and the kingship was taken to Bad-tibira.
In Bad-tibira, Enmen-lu-ana ruled for 43,200 years.
Enmen-gal-ana ruled for 28,800 years.
The divine Dumuzi, the shepherd, ruled for 36,000 years.
Three kings; they ruled for 108,000 years.

 

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Writing (15)

Sumerian king list:
What do we know about the Sumerian city of Bad-Tibira?

Bad-Tibira was an ancient Sumerian city, known as Tell al-Madineh today, famed for its metalworkers and its significance in the Sumerian King List as the second city to hold kingship before the flood. The city was a major religious center, with the primary god being Dumuzid the Shepherd (Tammuz), and it was built on the Iturungal canal. Evidence from the site shows construction by rulers like Ur-Nammu and En-metena, but also indicates periods of destruction and conflict, including a fire that vitrified its brickwork.

Key Aspects of Bad-Tibira

• Name and Location: The name Bad-Tibira means "Wall of the Copper Workers" or "Fortress of the Smiths". It was located on the Iturungal canal in what is now southern Iraq.
  

Sumerian King List: The city is notable as one of the antediluvian (before the Flood) cities in the Sumerian King List, holding kingship after Eridu.

Deity and Mythology: Its main deity was the god of fertility, Dumuzid the Shepherd (Akkadian Tammuz). Dumuzid was later associated with the netherworld in tales like "Inanna's Descent".

Archaeological Evidence:

• Destruction: The city suffered a severe fire and destruction, possibly around 3500 BCE, that caused bricks to melt and vitrify.

Construction: Rulers, including Ur-Nammu and En-metena, undertook construction projects, with the temple and walls being rebuilt at different times.

Site Impact: The modern archaeological site, Tell al-Mada'in, has been heavily impacted by looting and has never been officially excavated, limiting our understanding of its economy and population.

Historical Significance: Bad-Tibira was a major religious and cultural center in ancient Sumer, with its history spanning from before the Flood until around 1500 BCE.

 

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Writing (16)

Sumerian king list:
Do we know anything about the three kings of Bad-Tibira, Enmen-lu-ana, Enmen-gal-ana and Dumuzi, except from the Sumerian king list?

No, our knowledge of Emmen-lu-ana, Emmen-gal-ana, and Dumuzi is limited almost exclusively to the Sumerian King List, with very little corroborating information from other contemporary or primary sources. While Inanna's Descent to the Netherworld mentions the city of Bad-Tibira and its patron deity Lulal, and also features the god Dumuzid, the details about the specific kings Emmen-lu-ana and Emmen-gal-ana remain confined to the King List.

Limited Contemporary Evidence

• The Sumerian King List (SKL) is the primary source for these individuals. The list details reigns of kings in Sumer, with the section about the mythical, pre-flood kings forming the earliest part of the list.
• Other Texts: While the SKL presents these kings, they are generally considered mythological rather than historical figures because they are not mentioned in contemporary Sumerian texts or archaeological records from their purported period of rule.

Information from Other Texts (but not about the specific kings)

• Inanna's Descent to the Netherworld: This important myth mentions the city of Bad-Tibira and its patron god Lulal. It also features Dumuzid (identified as the Shepherd in the SKL), though he is portrayed in the context of the city of Uruk, not Bad-Tibira.

Why the Limited Information?

• The antediluvian section of the SKL, which names these kings, is believed to have been added later to the list.
  

Mythology vs. History: The rulers listed in the pre-flood section of the SKL, including Emmen-lu-ana and Emmen-gal-ana, are often seen as symbolic or mythological figures. The list blends these mythological accounts with historical figures.

The extremely long reigns attributed to these figures reinforce their mythical status rather than their historical reality.

 

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Writing (17)

Sumerian king list:
Why is the Sumerian king Dumuzi called divine and the shepherd?


The Sumerian king Dumuzi was called "shepherd" because he was a fertility god and a protector of domesticated animals, particularly those crucial for agriculture and wool. He was considered "divine" due to his association with the agricultural cycles of death and rebirth, his sacred marriage to the goddess Inanna, and his role as a deified human king who represented the fertility of the land and was thought to embody the vitality of the world.
Why the "Shepherd" Epithet?

• Protection of Livestock: As the god of shepherds, Dumuzi was prayed to for the health and well-being of animals, especially those providing food (milk) and materials (wool).

Why "Divine"?

• Fertility and Rebirth: Dumuzi's association with the annual cycle of vegetation's fertility and rebirth connected him to the divine powers that governed life and death.
  

Pastoral Domain: His domain extended to all things pastoral, making him a focal point for people who depended on domesticated animals for their livelihood.
Sacred Marriage: The myth of his marriage to Inanna, the goddess of love and war, symbolized the fecundity of the earth, providing security and renewal for the community.
Deified Human King: Historical kings, after their deaths, were sometimes identified with Dumuzi, who was then considered a divine representative of his people and city.
Seasonal Cycles: His supposed death during the dry summer months and his return in the spring, causing the land to become fertile again, cemented his connection to the divine forces of nature.

 

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Writing (18)

Sumerian king list:

Then Bad-tibira fell and the kingship was taken to Larak.
In Larak, En-sipad-zid-ana ruled for 28,800 years.
One king; he ruled for 28,800 years.

 

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Writing (19)

Sumerian king list:

What do we know about the Sumerian city of Larak?

Larak was a significant Sumerian city that held kingship before the legendary flood, though its actual existence and location are unconfirmed by archaeological evidence. It was the seat of the third Sumerian kingship and the patron deity was the god Pabilsag, associated with medicine, judgment, and the underworld. Unlike other cities from the pre-flood era, Larak appears only in later literary texts, such as the Sumerian King List (SKL), leading scholars to consider it a lost or mythical city rather than an archaeologically confirmed one.
Key Facts about Larak

• Kingship: It was the city where the third Sumerian kingship resided before the mythological flood.

Controversy and Uncertainty

• Literary vs. Archaeological Record: The existence of Larak is supported by the Sumerian King List and subsequent literary compositions, but it lacks the archaeological and textual evidence of other early Sumerian cities.
• Lost City: Due to the absence of archaeological sites, Larak is often referred to as a "lost city," making its historical reality a matter of scholarly debate.

Deity: The primary deity of Larak was Pabilsag, a warrior god related to Ninurta, and a consort of the healing goddess Ninisina.
Patron Goddess: The goddess Gasan-aste, a version of the healing goddess Ninisina, was also worshiped in Larak.
Location: Larak's location is unknown, but it is believed to have been in the Dhi Qar, Wasit, or Al-Qādisiyyah governorates of modern-day Iraq.
Historical Status: Larak is listed on the Sumerian King List (SKL), a text of Sumerian history and mythology, but unlike other cities mentioned, it has not been identified archaeologically.

 

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Writing (20)

Sumerian king list:
Do we know anything about the king of Larak, En-sipad-zid-ana, except from the Sumerian king list?


En-sipad-zid-ana appears as the king of Larak in some versions of the Sumerian Ling List (SKL). According to that literary composition, En-sipad-zid-ana ruled for 28,800 years. The kings on the early part of the SKL are usually not considered historical, except when they are mentioned in Early Dynastic documents. En-sipad-zid-ana is not one of them.

 

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Writing (21)

Sumerian king list:

Then Larak fell and the kingship was taken to Sippar.
In Sippar, Enmen-dur-ana became king; he ruled for 21,000 years.
One king; he ruled for 21,000 years.

 

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Writing (22)

Sumerian king list:

What do we know about the Sumerian city of Sippar?
Sippar was an ancient Mesopotamian city on the Euphrates River, primarily known as the cult center for the sun god Shamash (Sumerian Utu) and home to his main temple, E-babbara. It was a significant city from the Early Dynastic period through the Neo-Babylonian era, located at the site of modern Tell Abu Habbah in Iraq, and was sometimes paired with its sister city Sippar-Amnanum. Sippar was also famous for its Naditu women, a religious community of unmarried women who participated in economic and social activities, and it played a crucial role in the broader history of Babylonia.

Religious Significance

• Cult Center of Shamash: Sippar was a paramount religious center dedicated to the sun god Shamash (Utu).

Economic and Social Life

• The Naditu Community: Sippar was home to a notable community of Naditu women, a type of "religious" wife who lived in cloisters, adopted daughters, and acted as real estate proprietors and moneylenders.
• Economic Role: The Naditu women and the temple served as important economic institutions, with families sending daughters to the city for religious, cultural, and financial benefits.

History and Archaeology

• Dual City: Sippar was one of a pair of cities on the Euphrates, with its sister city Sippar-Amnanum located on the opposite bank.

Biblical Connections

• Biblical Sepharvaim: Sippar is suggested as the location of the biblical city of Sepharvaim mentioned in the Old Testament, a name that might allude to the city's dual nature.

Temple E-babbara: The city was home to the magnificent temple E-babbara, meaning "White House," which was central to the worship of Shamash.

Other Deities: Other deities also had temples in Sippar, including the goddess Nin-Isina, and the temple of the goddess Annunītu in the city's sister site, Sippar-Amnanum.

Babylonian Period: The city walls and the temple of Shamash were rebuilt and attended to by various Babylonian kings, including Sumu-la-El, Hammurabi, and Samsu-iluna, and later by Nabu-apla-iddina.

Elamite Sacking: The city was famously sacked by the Elamite king Kutir-Nahhunte in 1174 BC, an event that led to the recovery of the ancient image of the sun god during the rebuilding of the temple by Nabu-apla-iddina.

Archaeological Excavations: Archaeological work at the site (Tell Abu Habbah) began in the late 19th century and has uncovered thousands of cuneiform tablets, including fragments of the Epic of Gilgamesh.

 

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Writing (23)

Sumerian king list:
What was the link between Sippar and its sister city Sippar-Amnanum located on the opposite bank?

Sippar and Sippar-Amnanum were linked as two parts of a dual city, divided by the Euphrates river, with Sippar on the east bank and Sippar-Amnanum on the west. This duality is reflected in the biblical name "Sepharvaim," and the two sites shared archives of cuneiform tablets, indicating they functioned as a single administrative or cultural entity despite their physical separation.

Key Aspects of the Link

• Geographical and Administrative: The two cities functioned together, with Sippar sometimes referred to as Sippar-Yahrurum to differentiate it from its western counterpart.
  

Shared Archives: Evidence from cuneiform tablets shows they belonged to the same archive, indicating a shared administrative or economic purpose, as noted in the example of the Bu 91-5-9 collection.

Cultural Significance: The existence of a "dual city" is hinted at in the Hebrew Bible's name "Sepharvaim," a name that alludes to the city's two parts, further cementing their connection in history.

 

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Writing (24)

Sumerian king list:
Were Sippar and Sippar-Amnanum founded at the same time?

No, Sippar and Sippar-Amnanum were not founded at the same time; while Sippar was in use as early as the Uruk period (c. 4th millennium BCE) and substantial occupation occurred in the Early Dynastic period (3rd millennium BC), Sippar-Amnanum's occupation is documented from the Akkadian period, with significant development in the Old Babylonian period (2nd millennium BC) and earlier foundations from the Ur III period.

Sippar's Foundation and Early Use

• Sippar was one of the oldest cities in Babylonia, with evidence of use dating back to the Uruk period.
• The city experienced substantial occupation during the Early Dynastic period (3rd millennium BC) and the Old Babylonian period (2nd millennium BC).

Sippar-Amnanum's Foundation and Development

• Sippar-Amnanum was the sister city of Sippar, located on the opposite side of the Euphrates River.
• Though occupied from the Akkadian Period, its history prior to the Old Babylonian period is less understood.
• Excavations revealed foundations from the Ur III period, with significant occupation evident in the Old Babylonian period.

In summary: Sippar existed as an established settlement for a longer period before significant occupation and development in Sippar-Amnanum.

 

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Writing (25)

Sumerian king list:
Were there different Sumerian "dual cities"?

There was at least one known Sumerian "dual city": Sippar, which was situated on the Euphrates River with its sister city, Sippar-Amnanum, located on the opposite bank. This arrangement where two cities existed together, often separated by a river or significant physical feature, is referred to as a dual-city situation.

• Sippar: This was the name of the city on the east side of the Euphrates River.
• Sippar-Amnanum: The sister city on the west side of the Euphrates.

The concept of dual cities can also be seen in other examples, though Sippar is a key example from the Sumerian period.

 

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Writing (26)

Sumerian king list:
Were there different "dual cities" in the first ancient civilizations?

Yes, early examples of "dual cities" existed in ancient civilizations, where two distinct centers were initially separate entities that later merged or remained distinct for administrative and social purposes, as seen with the Aztec cities of Tenochtitlán and Tlatelolco. Unlike modern dual cities, which are often a product of colonialization, these ancient examples represented the merging of once-separate settlements or divisions within a single city's structure, such as the Aztec practice of dividing the capital into wards for better governance.

Examples of ancient "dual cities"

• Tenochtitlán and Tlatelolco: The Aztec capital was initially two distinct city-states, Tenochtitlán and Tlatelolco, which eventually merged into one, although they maintained separate administrative identities within the larger capital.
• Internal city divisions: Even after merging, cities could be further divided for administrative purposes. Tenochtitlán was divided into four major wards, or calpulli, which were further subdivided to manage the growing population and its complex tax base.

Distinction from modern "dual cities"

• Colonial origins vs. gradual formation: Many modern "dual cities" are a direct legacy of colonial history, where colonial powers created separate European and native urban centers. In contrast, ancient dual cities developed through conquest, merging, and internal administrative necessity within the existing structure of the civilization.
• Physical and social distinctiveness: While modern dual cities often remain physically and socially distinct due to their differing origins, ancient examples, while sometimes maintaining administrative divisions, were more likely to form a single, integrated urban entity over time.